Did you know that medicine isn't a solely human field? Researchers have found animals using plants, alcohol and even cigarette butts to retain their health. Sounds unbelievable? Take a look at...
What is Zoopharmacognosy?The natural world is filled with hazards, ranging from parasites and poisons to simple physical trauma. Modern humans have a much higher lifespan than a caveman - and a large part of that is our use of medicine. We're not the only ones to experiment with pharmacology, though.
The word zoopharmacognosy comes from zoo (animal) then pharma (drug) and finally gnosy (knowledge). It refers to animals deliberately using some kind of rudimentary medicine to alleviate an illness or infection – simply consuming a medically useful substance as part of an everyday diet doesn't count!
Examples of this behavior are more common than you'd think. Dogs and cats eating grass qualify since it will induce vomiting and help resolve an upset stomach. Another potential example involves birds collecting cigarette butts for their nests - something that can repel parasitic mites. In the wild, these same birds collect noxious plants to line their nests with similar results.
The bonobos would take a section of leaf or stem and place it on their tongue, adding more foliage as they produced saliva and rolling it into a ball. They did all this whilst taking care not to touch their lips, as M. fulvum can cause sores on skin contact. The primates would then swallow the ball whole without chewing.
Examination of the droppings produced by the Bonobos indicated that the leaves remained in the animals for over 24 hours. Fruth speculates that the wadded-up balls of foliage act a bit like a time-release capsule, killing off parasites inside the gut and possibly providing an anti-inflammatory effect.
Fruit Flies That Drink or DieSince their preferred diet is fermenting fruit, the larvae of fruit flies spend most of their time sitting in food with around 5%-15% alcohol content. Life isn't all idyllic for the insects, though, as they are the frequent victims of tiny parasitic wasps. The wasps inject an egg and an immuno-suppressing dose of venom into the larvae, which allows the wasp egg to grow unchallenged.
This is unsurprisingly fatal to the larvae, who find themselves consumed from the inside before a new wasp emerges from their hollowed-out husks. The only chance they have is if their immune system can overcome the venom and kill the egg before it can grow... or so we thought.
Because the fruit flies live in alcohol, they have developed a fairly high tolerance for it – something that the wasps lack. A recent experiment found that infected fruit fly larvae gravitate to higher concentrations of alcohol in a petri dish compared to their uninfected companions. Furthermore, 60% of the fruit flies that stayed in the high alcohol were able to overcome the parasite, while all those outside were consumed.
Unfortunately for the fruit flies, some specialist varieties of wasp are developing a tolerance for alcohol – the flies were only able to outdrink them 10% of the time.
Researchers found an increase in the proportion of bees foraging for resin in colonies with parasitic infections, implying that this was a response to infection. This is one of the extremely rare cases of social zoopharmacognosy, as worker bees are actively medicating the entire colony in response to a high concentration of parasites.
Though more research needs to be done on the effects of Ligusticum porteri, it is currently sold as a folk remedy for treating respiratory problems. At least one study has found that the plant may be an immune-modulating agent when used on humans, and the root seems to have some anti-microbial effects.
Ointment for the Old Man of the ForestOrangutans are sometimes called the old man of the forest, and like their namesake, they can get sore joints. Researchers observing these primates in Sabangau Forest, Borneo, found that they would sometimes use the Dracaena cantleyi plant as a topical rub. In one instance, a female orangutan chewed the leaves into a white and soapy lather that she then rubbed into her upper left arm. The leaves were then discarded rather than swallowed.
Laboratory testing of Dracaena cantleyi has revealed an anti-inflammatory effect, and the indigenous people of Borneo traditionally use it as muscle relief. The behavior seems most common amongst adult female orangutans, possibly as a remedy for joint pain caused by carrying infants around as they climb.
The fruit flies mentioned above may be a case of instinctual behavior fueled by natural selection. Larvae that moved to higher alcohol levels after being attacked had a chance to survive, while those that didn't died. Over time, the alcohol-favoring flies would have more larvae surviving to reproduce and become the most common type.
Some populations of animals (especially the great apes) can learn by observation. Researchers found that these primates were capable of operating a food dispenser after watching a human demonstrate several ways to operate it. Interestingly, the apes copied the preferred method of the human, even if it was the least efficient.
If a particularly curious ape tried using a medicinal plant, perhaps other apes could observe the results and copy the method, even if they didn't really know why they were doing it. This kind of learning could even cross the species barrier - humans are said to have started using the osha root after observing bears, and maybe a similar thing happened in Borneo!
- What is Zoopharmacognosy?
- Pill-Popping Primates
- Fruit Flies That Drink or Die
- Saying "Buzz Off" With Resin
- Bear Medicine
- Ointment for the Old Man of the Forest
- Instinctual Survival and Cross-Species Learning
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| We've used honey as medicine, but bees mix antimicrobial resin into their wax! (PollyDot) |
What is Zoopharmacognosy?The natural world is filled with hazards, ranging from parasites and poisons to simple physical trauma. Modern humans have a much higher lifespan than a caveman - and a large part of that is our use of medicine. We're not the only ones to experiment with pharmacology, though.
The word zoopharmacognosy comes from zoo (animal) then pharma (drug) and finally gnosy (knowledge). It refers to animals deliberately using some kind of rudimentary medicine to alleviate an illness or infection – simply consuming a medically useful substance as part of an everyday diet doesn't count!
Examples of this behavior are more common than you'd think. Dogs and cats eating grass qualify since it will induce vomiting and help resolve an upset stomach. Another potential example involves birds collecting cigarette butts for their nests - something that can repel parasitic mites. In the wild, these same birds collect noxious plants to line their nests with similar results.
Pill-Popping Primates
Primates are one of nature's more inventive species, and that talent extends to medicine. Fruth et al. observed the diet of wild bonobos in Salonga National Park in Africa, finding that the bonobos sometimes consumed Manniophyton fulvum - a climbing plant with irritant properties used in traditional African medicine. This plant does not form a part of their regular diet and is only consumed during prime parasite conditions.The bonobos would take a section of leaf or stem and place it on their tongue, adding more foliage as they produced saliva and rolling it into a ball. They did all this whilst taking care not to touch their lips, as M. fulvum can cause sores on skin contact. The primates would then swallow the ball whole without chewing.
Examination of the droppings produced by the Bonobos indicated that the leaves remained in the animals for over 24 hours. Fruth speculates that the wadded-up balls of foliage act a bit like a time-release capsule, killing off parasites inside the gut and possibly providing an anti-inflammatory effect.
 |
| Fruit fly heaven? (manfredrichter) |
Fruit Flies That Drink or DieSince their preferred diet is fermenting fruit, the larvae of fruit flies spend most of their time sitting in food with around 5%-15% alcohol content. Life isn't all idyllic for the insects, though, as they are the frequent victims of tiny parasitic wasps. The wasps inject an egg and an immuno-suppressing dose of venom into the larvae, which allows the wasp egg to grow unchallenged.
This is unsurprisingly fatal to the larvae, who find themselves consumed from the inside before a new wasp emerges from their hollowed-out husks. The only chance they have is if their immune system can overcome the venom and kill the egg before it can grow... or so we thought.
Because the fruit flies live in alcohol, they have developed a fairly high tolerance for it – something that the wasps lack. A recent experiment found that infected fruit fly larvae gravitate to higher concentrations of alcohol in a petri dish compared to their uninfected companions. Furthermore, 60% of the fruit flies that stayed in the high alcohol were able to overcome the parasite, while all those outside were consumed.
Unfortunately for the fruit flies, some specialist varieties of wasp are developing a tolerance for alcohol – the flies were only able to outdrink them 10% of the time.
Saying "Buzz Off" With Resin
Though built as a shelter, honey bee hives can become infested with parasites such as fungi – so the bees have had to develop countermeasures to survive. One such method involves building plant resins into the architecture of the nest, coating the interior of the hive in a thin layer of propolis - resin mixed with wax. The resin has antimicrobial properties that can keep the number of parasites low and protect the bees.Researchers found an increase in the proportion of bees foraging for resin in colonies with parasitic infections, implying that this was a response to infection. This is one of the extremely rare cases of social zoopharmacognosy, as worker bees are actively medicating the entire colony in response to a high concentration of parasites.
Bear Medicine
Though known for their strength and toughness, bears are no stranger to infestation by parasites or disease. Certain ursine populations found in America have been observed grubbing for the osha root, either to consume it or rub it on their fur. Groups of people living in close proximity to bears (such as the Native Americans) picked up on this "bear medicine" and tried using it as a natural remedy.Though more research needs to be done on the effects of Ligusticum porteri, it is currently sold as a folk remedy for treating respiratory problems. At least one study has found that the plant may be an immune-modulating agent when used on humans, and the root seems to have some anti-microbial effects.
 |
| One should probably expect joint pain from lugging a baby through the forest! (Anonymous) |
Ointment for the Old Man of the ForestOrangutans are sometimes called the old man of the forest, and like their namesake, they can get sore joints. Researchers observing these primates in Sabangau Forest, Borneo, found that they would sometimes use the Dracaena cantleyi plant as a topical rub. In one instance, a female orangutan chewed the leaves into a white and soapy lather that she then rubbed into her upper left arm. The leaves were then discarded rather than swallowed.
Laboratory testing of Dracaena cantleyi has revealed an anti-inflammatory effect, and the indigenous people of Borneo traditionally use it as muscle relief. The behavior seems most common amongst adult female orangutans, possibly as a remedy for joint pain caused by carrying infants around as they climb.
Instinctual Survival and Cross-Species Learning
You may be wondering how animals pick up these rudimentary cures – both instinctual and learned behavior could be responsible.The fruit flies mentioned above may be a case of instinctual behavior fueled by natural selection. Larvae that moved to higher alcohol levels after being attacked had a chance to survive, while those that didn't died. Over time, the alcohol-favoring flies would have more larvae surviving to reproduce and become the most common type.
Some populations of animals (especially the great apes) can learn by observation. Researchers found that these primates were capable of operating a food dispenser after watching a human demonstrate several ways to operate it. Interestingly, the apes copied the preferred method of the human, even if it was the least efficient.
If a particularly curious ape tried using a medicinal plant, perhaps other apes could observe the results and copy the method, even if they didn't really know why they were doing it. This kind of learning could even cross the species barrier - humans are said to have started using the osha root after observing bears, and maybe a similar thing happened in Borneo!
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